The Power and Limitations of Evidence for Classroom Practice

A new book highlights research-based evidence of what actually works in classroom practice. Lee Elliot Major and Steve Higgins explain the research and show how the main issue in teaching is not what you do, but how you do it.

The ‘Bananarama Principle’ is named after Bananarama and Fun Boy Three’s 1982 hit single ‘It Ain’t What You Do…..’1 The chorus states ‘it ain’t what you do it’s the way that you do it’—and it’s essential advice for educators acting on the findings of research. This guiding law came to life in 2011 when we launched the Pupil Premium Toolkit.2

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      string(388) "... approach to reflecting on practice.    Some of course would respond that teachers’ preference for local action research simply reflects teachers’ failure to understand the potential power of engaging with ‘robust’ research, or their lack of skills and confidence to utilise evidence from trials.  But this debate is not just about ..."
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      string(5744) "lack of robustness in much practitioner and school-based research – and its lack of generalisability in terms of informing practice more widely.  Nevertheless, that does not lead all of those commentators to dismiss the value of such activity.  As Furlong and Salisbury (2005) reflected, such activity gives access to the ‘discourse’ of research.  This is about engagement with or in research as, first and foremost, a development activity and as a basis for a more systematic approach to reflecting on practice.    Some of course would respond that teachers’ preference for local action research simply reflects teachers’ failure to understand the potential power of engaging with ‘robust’ research, or their lack of skills and confidence to utilise evidence from trials.  But this debate is not just about methodological concerns; it is also about the implications of different models of research use for understandings of the nature of teacher professionalism, which will also shape teachers’ attitudes and approaches.  The limitations of ‘what works’ for teacher professionalismAs Furlong (2019) reflects, ‘what works’ can sometimes seem to provide expert technical knowledge in a way that reduces the scope for professional judgement and thereby turns teachers into technical functionaries.  This is especially so if it is the only part of a professional’s research diet.  There is then the further question of whether that research diet should be restricted to reflection on immediate issues of classroom practice and, more specifically, raising pupil attainment in line with official indicators.  Even on the broader definitions of research-informed practice outlined above, teacher engagement with research is all contained within a school effectiveness perspective, purely concerned with school improvement in terms of raising test scores.  In this sense, even action research can become an (albeit distant) off-shoot of the ’what works’ agenda.  As we argued in the 2005 BERA presidential address (Whitty, 2006), the professional literacy of teachers surely involves more than such purely instrumental knowledge.  Accordingly, it is appropriate that a research-based profession should also be informed by scholarship that questions prevailing assumptions, and considers such questions as to whether an activity is a worthwhile endeavour in the first place (see also, for example, Biesta, 2006; Hammersley, 2005;  Atkinson, 2000).  Chiming with this perspective, Winch, Oancea and Orchard (2013) emphasise three interconnected and complementary prongs to a richer notion of teacher professionalism: practical wisdom, technical knowledge and critical reflection (see also Leat, Lofthouse and Reid, 2013).The importance of professional criticalityIt seems that educational researchers themselves will need to make the argument for maintaining a broad church of education research in this regard – and make greater effort to show external audiences, not least education practitioners, how their professionalism and practice can grow by engaging with a breadth of material.  Just as some are keen for teachers to be better able to engage with and judge the findings of quantitative research, so there remains a place for critical studies within their reading.  It is this criticality that arguably takes the teacher from being a technician to one degree or another, to being a professional who is able to engage with debates about underpinning values – as well as one who is able to understand the ecosystem within which s/he is practicing and perhaps even act to change it.  That would seem to be an important marker of a contemporary professional, whether of the ‘managerial’, ‘collaborative’ or ‘democratic’ variety (Whitty, 2008).  This would be in keeping with earlier models of the relationship between research and practice within the English schools system, such as that exemplified by the work of Stenhouse (e.g. Stenhouse, 1975).Implications for teacher professional developmentIn this article we have addressed the issues of whether the research evidence that teachers are using should ideally be external to the teacher, and preferably in the form of findings from a trial; whether there is any place for small-scale, teacher-led research in that research use; and whether teacher professionalism requires or benefits from engagement with critical or theoretical work under the banner of research use.  In the process we have shown the slippage between different definitions of research use in practice.  From there we have made the case for an inclusive and pragmatic model of research-informed practice – for the purposes of practice/school improvement, but also in support of a richer model of teacher professionalism.  What this highlights are the issues for education as a field of research and as a field of practice in weaving together different types of knowledge and accommodating different epistemological traditions.A major current debate in the field of education studies centres on what counts as ‘powerful’ knowledge in professional contexts, an issue recently brought to life in discussions of Michael Young’s work with Joe Muller (Guile et al, 2018).  In their view, the ‘problem’ for the field of education research is that the closer to the world of practice one moves, the less ‘rigorous’ and less cumulative become the forms of knowledge that are developed – as our earlier discussion"
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Leading Professional Development

Weaving together the evidence – what really works in research, practice and professional development?

13 Feb 2019

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      string(345) "... that our growing understanding of how we learn should play a much greater role in education policy and should also feature in teacher training. The report also discusses the challenges and limitations of applying neuroscience in the classroom and in learning environments throughout life.
Leadership Briefing issue 5.10(58)"
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      string(5680) "ResourceNEUROSCIENCE: IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNINGOriginal DocumentBrain Waves 2: Neuroscience: Implications For Education And Lifelong Learning. This report highlights advances in neuroscience with potential implications for education and lifelong learning. The report authors, including neuroscientists, cognitive psychologists and education specialists, agree that if applied properly, the impacts of neuroscience could be highly beneficial in schools and beyond.  The report argues that our growing understanding of how we learn should play a much greater role in education policy and should also feature in teacher training. The report also discusses the challenges and limitations of applying neuroscience in the classroom and in learning environments throughout life.KeywordsNeuroscience, education, lifelong learning, environment, policy, CPD, SENSummaryThis report highlights advances in neuroscience with potential implications for education and lifelong learning. The report authors, including neuroscientists, cognitive psychologists and education specialists, agree that if applied properly, the impacts of neuroscience could be highly beneficial in schools and beyond.  The report argues that our growing understanding of how we learn should play a much greater role in education policy and should also feature in teacher training. The report also discusses the challenges and limitations of applying neuroscience in the classroom and in learning environments throughout life.The report suggests that teacher training should include a component of how the brain works relevant to educational issues.Training and continued professional development of all teachers should include aspects of neuroscience which are relevant to educators. At present neuroscience rarely features as part of initial teacher training courses. The report says that findings from neuroscience that characterise different learning processes could support and enhance teachers’ own experiences of how individuals learn, be they in school, further education, higher education or in the workplace.The report recommends in particular, that teacher training providers for Special Education Needs across all ages should consider including a focus on the neurobiological basis of learning difficulties such as dyslexia, dyscalculia and ADHD.The report also touches on cognitive enhancement which might manifest as improved problem-solving ability or memory, for example. This increased ability is usually linked with the targeted use of drugs or sophisticated technology. However the report’s authors suggest, that compared with these means, education in itself is the most powerful form of cognitive enhancement available to society.Summary:· Neuroscience research suggests that learning outcomes are not solely determined by the environment. Biological factors play an important role in accounting for differences in learning ability between individuals.· By considering biological factors, research has advanced the understanding of specific learning difficulties, such as dyslexia and dyscalculia. Likewise, neuroscience is uncovering why certain types of learning are more rewarding than others.· The brain changes constantly as a result of learning, and remains ‘plastic’ throughout life. Neuroscience has shown that learning a skill changes the brain and that these changes revert when practice of the skill ceases. Hence ‘use it or lose it’ is an important principle for lifelong learning.· Resilience, our adaptive response to stress and adversity, can be built up through education with lifelong effects into old age.· Both acquisition of knowledge and mastery of self-control benefit future learning. Thus, neuroscience has a key role in investigating means of boosting brain power.· Some insights from neuroscience are relevant for the development and use of adaptive digital technologies. These technologies have the potential to create more learning opportunities inside and outside the classroom, and throughout life. This is exciting given the knock-on effects this could have on wellbeing, health, employment and the economy.· There is great public interest in neuroscience, yet accessible high quality information is scarce. We urge caution in the rush to apply so-called brain-based methods, many of which do not yet have a sound basis in science. There are inspiring developments in basic science although practical applications are still some way off.· The emerging field of educational neuroscience presents opportunities as well as challenges for education. It provides means to develop a common language and bridge the gulf between educators, psychologists and neuroscientists.ActionRecommendations:Recommendation 1· Neuroscience should be used as a tool in educational policy. Neuroscience evidence should inform the assessment of different education policy options and their impacts where available and relevant. Neuroscience evidence should also be considered in diverse policy areas such as health and employmentRecommendation 2· Training and continued professional development should include a component of neuroscience relevant to educational issues, in particular, but not restricted to, Special Educational Needs.· Teacher training providers for Special Education Needs across all ages should consider including a focus on the neurobiological underpinnings of learning difficulties such as dyslexia, dyscalculia and ADHD. This training should be extended to teachers for all ages.Recommendation 3· Neuroscience should inform adaptive learning"
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Leadership

Neuroscience: Implications For Education And Lifelong Learning

1 Mar 2011

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      string(336) "Confucius, the ancient Chinese philosopher, is attributed to have said that there are three ways to acquire wisdom: ‘first, by reflection, which is noblest; second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third, by experience, which is the most bitter.’ Well-meaning tutors and mentors often tell trainee teachers that they ..."
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      string(408) "... fluid manner to record connections and relationships between ideas and information.  Portfolios are also widely used, particularly in initial teacher training where trainee teachers collect evidence of their progress towards standards for qualified teacher status/ teachers’ standards. In the context of reflective practice, such portfolios can include annotated lesson plans ..."
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      string(362) "Confucius, the ancient Chinese philosopher, is attributed to have said that there are three ways to acquire wisdom: ‘first, by reflection, which is noblest; second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third, by experience, which is the most bitter.’ Well-meaning tutors and mentors often tell trainee teachers that they will improve with experience."
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      string(5707) "This is, of course, not necessarily the case.  Experience itself is not enough. Teachers – like children – learn by making sense of experience. And reflective practice can help in this process. Reflection offers educators the opportunity to question, refresh and enliven what they do, to avoid becoming stale and static. But how does one capture reflections? And what is needed to go beyond the cosmetic, surface level – to see what lies beyond the mirror? This second article in the three-part series considers these questions. Recording reflectionsThere are various means of recording and supporting reflective practice. The choice very much depends on whether there are plans to share outcomes with others and the available time and resources. More structured approaches are useful for systematically collecting data but these are more time consuming than, say, informal discussions. Figure 1 is not exhaustive but sets out some common contexts, strategies and tools used to record reflective thoughts. Figure 1: Sources and strategies to support reflective practice Journals and portfoliosReflective journals are perhaps the most widely used means of describing change in practice and identifying how this might be improved. Journaling comes in many forms – from impromptu jottings on sticky notes to more structured formats that follow set prompts.  Keeping a journal is essentially a linear process but maps and other visuals can be used in a more fluid manner to record connections and relationships between ideas and information.  Portfolios are also widely used, particularly in initial teacher training where trainee teachers collect evidence of their progress towards standards for qualified teacher status/ teachers’ standards. In the context of reflective practice, such portfolios can include annotated lesson plans and evaluations, data on learners’ performance and how this has been interpreted, feedback comments from colleagues and examples of professional development. However, the maintaining of such portfolios and other records should not become a chore if the value of reflection is to be realised. The danger is reflection becomes a mechanistic process of compliance.Visual toolsThe power of mind-maps, diagrams, doodles and other visual tools should not be underestimated as a form of stimulating reflective thinking. Once dismissed as an idle use of time, doodling is now recognised in helping people to stay focused, retain information and spur creative thoughts. Sunni Brown, author of The Doodle Revolution, points out that the likes of Einstein, Edison, and Marie Curie were all inveterate doodlers. Similarly, ‘sketchnoting’ is becoming increasingly popular in schools and the business community.  Sketchnoting is a strategy to help capture thinking visually, remember key information more clearly, and sharing this in an engaging way. To be able to sketchnote, you don’t require advanced drawing skills, but do need to visually synthesize and summarise via shapes, connectors, and text. In other words, a sketchnote is a personal, visual reflection. In terms of reflective practice, this could provide a starting point for gathering thoughts about a lesson, topic or class of learners. The finished sketchnote also provides a discussion point for use with children – who can reflect on the lesson.Learner voiceIn the first article we introduced Brookfield’s model that offers practitioners different lenses through which to explore what happens in the classroom. One of these lenses, learner voice, has become increasingly important over recent decades in the context of children’s rights. The late Professor Jean Rudduck wrote extensively on the value of listening to learners, particularly in building relationships and more inclusive communities. For reflective teachers, tapping into the rich potential of learner voice has the advantage of seeing their practice from a different, fresh angle (Rudduck and Flutter, 2003). By its nature, reflective practice is inherently subjective. By creating an inclusive environment in which learners and others feel confident enough to speak openly, teachers can gain greater insight into the impact of their work. This does not mean necessarily that learners know better than teachers, nor does it mean treating learner voice as representing one homogenous view. When learners’ views are considered alongside other sources, teachers are able to build up a more rounded picture of what is happening in the classroom. This can help shed light on what otherwise might be missed.  Learners can express their views in lots of informal ways, such as jotting down comments on sticky-notes and drawings as well as through class councils and school parliaments, focus groups, newsletters and questionnaires. These can prove an important stimulus for teachers’ reflective thinking.However, these models rely on personal reflection, which, although valuable runs some risks. How do you know if you are reflecting on the right things to improve the teaching and learning in your class? What if we are unaware of some of our practices – both the good and the not so good? And, of course – what we think we do is not necessarily what actually takes place in the lesson – so how can we ensure that we are reflecting on actual and not perceived events?One way to improve the quality and effectiveness of reflection is to work with others – discussing and sharing reflections. 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Leadership

Strategies to support reflective practitioners

20 Jun 2017

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      string(5668) "It cites the value of such practices as Philosophy for Children (P4C), which many schools have developed to41www.teachingtimes.com n Vol 1.3Leading LearningSpecial Reportexplore what are often seen as controversial issues with their pupils.The area of science and technology has also developed many of the pedagogic approaches that will help teachers fulfil the aims of the curriculum, such as Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (CASE) (Adey & Shayer 1994). Common to subject-based approaches like CASE is the development of disciplinary-based cognitive tools to examine ideas so that children learn how to ‘think like a scientist’ through ‘enacting dialogue’. A similar project has been developed in mathematics (Preston 2002) and the SPRinG scheme developed by researchers involved in the Teaching and Learning Research Project (TLRP) has also produced excellent guidelines for teachers focusing on science and collaborative group work – see the TLRP website.Place and time as a domain also has a fascinating body of work to support teachers who wish to take the aims of the Cambridge Review seriously, such as in geography (Leat 2001) and history (Fisher et al 2002).Work from all these projects has been disseminated to teachers through SLT’s sister publication Teaching Thinking & Creativity. They have the potential to inspire teachers who want to see how the aims of the CPR can be enacted through the domains of learning.National and local Support for the idea of a national curriculum was strong in the witnesses to the review, but they also recognised a need for schools to respond to local contexts. In response to this Cambridge proposes a 70/30 split in curriculum time between a national and community curriculum. The aims and domains are the same; the split in time is part of the process to allow schools to determine a significant part of what each domain contains to reflect local concerns and capitalize on local opportunities.Unfortunately, it is unlikely that the government will do anything to implement the recommendations of the Cambridge Primary Review, they have already asked the QCA to prepare programmes of study to support the findings of the Rose Review. In the event that New Labour is out of office next year we have to wonder what a Conservative alternative might adopt as education policy. Is it possible that they will accept the findings of Cambridge as they inevitably seek to dismantle the policies and practices of New Labour? Is it too much to hope that our politicians can stop treating education as a political football and listen to the democratically generated witness-based review of primary education that has taken four years to produce?The Cambridge Primary Review presents new aims for primary education which is grounded in evidence on children’s development, needs and capabilities and an assessment of national and global conditions requiring an educational response. It represents the most widespread and important review of primary education since Plowden and deserves to be considered seriously. It is time, I suggest, for the teachers’ unions to make their voice heard. Teachersare the single biggest voting group – they can exercise that power in the ballot box. As the National Association of headteachers flex their muscles and take a vote on boycotting the Key Stage 1 and 2 SATs, they may just sense their power to take back their professional entitlement to decide the best way forward for the children in their care. I hope they do.Sue Lyle is head of continuing professional development in the Swansea School of Education at Swansea Metropolitan University. She has been an educator for 34 years as a classroom teacher, advisory teacher, curriculum developer and since 1990 a teacher educator.ReferencesAdey, P; Shayer, M (1994), Really Raising Standards: Cognitiveintervention and academic achievement, RoutledgeAlexander, R; Rose, AJ; Woodhead, C (1992),Curriculum Organisation and Classroom Practicein Primary Schools: A discussion paper, DESAlexander, RJ; Flutter, J (2009), Towards a New PrimaryCurriculum: a report from the Cambridge Primary Review:Part 1: Past and Present, University of CambridgeAlexander, RJ; (2009), Towards a New PrimaryCurriculum: a report from the Cambridge Primary Review:Part 2: The Future, University of CambridgeAlexander, RJ (2006), Towards Dialogic Teaching:Rethinking Classroom Talk (3rd edn), DialogosCambridge Primary Review (2009), retrieved 22 February 2009from Cambridge Primary Review: www.primaryreview.org.ukDawes, L; Wegerif, R; Mercer, N (2000), Thinkingtogether: a programme of activities for developingthinking skills at KS2, QuestionsEgan, K (1992), Imagination in teachingand learning ages 8-15, RoutledgeFisher, P; Wilkinson, I; Leat, D (2002), ThinkingThrough History, Chris KingtonLeat, D (2001), Thinking Through Geography, Chris KingtonLyle, S (2008), ‘Dialogic Teaching: Discussing TheoreticalContexts and Reviewing Evidence from classroompractice’, Language and Education 22:3, 224-40Mercer, N (2000), Words and Minds: how we uselanguage to think together, RoutledgeNorman, K (ed) (1992), Thinking Voices: The Work ofthe National Oracy Project, Hodder & StoughtonNSIN (2002), Effective Learning, NationalSchool Improvement NetworkPreston, H (2002), Primary CAME thinkingmaths, teachers’ guide, BEAM EducationPlowden Report (1967), Children and their Primary Schools, HMSORose, J (2008), The Independent Review of thePrimary Curriculum, Crown CopyrightVygotsky, L (1978), Mind in Society, Harvard University PressVygotsky, L"
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Leadership

Clash of the titans: Rose vs Alexander

24 Jul 2009